Heating Properties of Firewood by Tree Species

Heating Properties of Firewood by Tree Species Firewood performance can differ from species to species. The type of tree you use for burning can vary widely in heat content, burning characteristics, and overall quality. I have created a table that presents several important burning characteristics for many species used in North America. The chart ranks each tree species by its density which is a good indicator of overall heating effectiveness. Wood Characteristics Influencing Quality Heating and Ignition Density of Wood - density is the amount of space a volume or mass of firewood occupies. The denser the wood, the less space its given mass takes up and the greater a particular volume of firewood weighs.  For an example,  hickory is about twice as dense as aspen, so a cubic foot of hickory weighs approximately 50 pounds while a cubic foot of aspen weighs only about 25 pounds.   Green Vs. Dry Wood - Firewood should be dried (seasoned) to 10% to 20% moisture content for best burning performance. Much of the energy generated from burning green firewood actually goes toward evaporating the water held in the wood. Green firewood only gives off about 40% of the energy of dry firewood. To get the most heat production out of your firewood, you should season it by first cutting into short log bolts. Split these bolts and stack in a dry,  well-ventilated  area for at least six months before burning. Available Heat by Wood Species  - Available heat is a measure of the heat given off when wood is burnt and measured in million British Thermal Units. Hardwood trees give  off more energy in BTUs than a comparable volume of softwood because it is denser. It should be noted that  the volatile oils in some softwoods can increase the heat output of some species but only for a short time. Ease of Splitting - Wood with a straight grain is easier to split than wood with a tighter more complex grain. Knots, branches, and other defects can also increase the difficulty of splitting firewood. Remember that dry wood is generally easier to split than green wood. Ease of Igniting Firewood - Ignition ability is an important factor wood factor. Low-density wood is easier to light than denser wood. Woods with higher levels of volatile chemicals in their structure, such as conifers, will ignite  and burn more readily than those with less volatile chemicals. These woods should be used to start fires where dry  high-density woods will provide the heat. Definitions of Chart Terms Density - woods dry weight per unit volume. Denser or heavier wood contains more heat per volume. Note that hickory ranks at the top of the list.Green Weight - the weight in pounds of a cord of freshly cut wood before drying.mmBTUs - million British Thermal Units. The woods actual available heat measured in BTUs.Coaling - wood that forms long-lasting coals are good to use in wood stoves because they allow a fire to be carried over a longer period effectively. Wood Heating Values Chart Common Name Density-lbs/cu.ft. Pounds/cd. (green) Million BTUs/cd. Coaling Hickory 50 4,327 27.7 good Osage-orange 50 5,120 32.9 excellent Black locust 44 4,616 27.9 excellent White oak 44 5,573 29.1 excellent Red oak 41 4,888 24.6 excellent White ash 40 3,952 24.2 good Sugar maple 42 4,685 25.5 excellent Elm 35 4,456 20.0 excellent Beech 41 NA 27.5 excellent Yellow birch 42 4,312 20.8 good Black walnut 35 4,584 22.2 good Sycamore 34 5,096 19.5 good Silver maple 32 3,904 19.0 excellent Hemlock 27 NA 19.3 poor Cherry 33 3,696 20.4 excellent Cottonwood 27 4,640 15.8 good Willow 35 4,320 17.6 poor Aspen 25 NA 18.2 good Basswood 25 4,404 13.8 poor White pine 23 NA 15.9 poor Ponderosa Pine 3,600 16.2 fair Eastern Red Cedar 31 2,950 18.2 poor

Heating Properties of Firewood by Tree Species

Heating Properties of Firewood by Tree Species Firewood performance can differ from species to species. The type of tree you use for burning can vary widely in heat content, burning characteristics, and overall quality. I have created a table that presents several important burning characteristics for many species used in North America. The chart ranks each tree species by its density which is a good indicator of overall heating effectiveness. Wood Characteristics Influencing Quality Heating and Ignition Density of Wood - density is the amount of space a volume or mass of firewood occupies. The denser the wood, the less space its given mass takes up and the greater a particular volume of firewood weighs.  For an example,  hickory is about twice as dense as aspen, so a cubic foot of hickory weighs approximately 50 pounds while a cubic foot of aspen weighs only about 25 pounds.   Green Vs. Dry Wood - Firewood should be dried (seasoned) to 10% to 20% moisture content for best burning performance. Much of the energy generated from burning green firewood actually goes toward evaporating the water held in the wood. Green firewood only gives off about 40% of the energy of dry firewood. To get the most heat production out of your firewood, you should season it by first cutting into short log bolts. Split these bolts and stack in a dry,  well-ventilated  area for at least six months before burning. Available Heat by Wood Species  - Available heat is a measure of the heat given off when wood is burnt and measured in million British Thermal Units. Hardwood trees give  off more energy in BTUs than a comparable volume of softwood because it is denser. It should be noted that  the volatile oils in some softwoods can increase the heat output of some species but only for a short time. Ease of Splitting - Wood with a straight grain is easier to split than wood with a tighter more complex grain. Knots, branches, and other defects can also increase the difficulty of splitting firewood. Remember that dry wood is generally easier to split than green wood. Ease of Igniting Firewood - Ignition ability is an important factor wood factor. Low-density wood is easier to light than denser wood. Woods with higher levels of volatile chemicals in their structure, such as conifers, will ignite  and burn more readily than those with less volatile chemicals. These woods should be used to start fires where dry  high-density woods will provide the heat. Definitions of Chart Terms Density - woods dry weight per unit volume. Denser or heavier wood contains more heat per volume. Note that hickory ranks at the top of the list.Green Weight - the weight in pounds of a cord of freshly cut wood before drying.mmBTUs - million British Thermal Units. The woods actual available heat measured in BTUs.Coaling - wood that forms long-lasting coals are good to use in wood stoves because they allow a fire to be carried over a longer period effectively. Wood Heating Values Chart Common Name Density-lbs/cu.ft. Pounds/cd. (green) Million BTUs/cd. Coaling Hickory 50 4,327 27.7 good Osage-orange 50 5,120 32.9 excellent Black locust 44 4,616 27.9 excellent White oak 44 5,573 29.1 excellent Red oak 41 4,888 24.6 excellent White ash 40 3,952 24.2 good Sugar maple 42 4,685 25.5 excellent Elm 35 4,456 20.0 excellent Beech 41 NA 27.5 excellent Yellow birch 42 4,312 20.8 good Black walnut 35 4,584 22.2 good Sycamore 34 5,096 19.5 good Silver maple 32 3,904 19.0 excellent Hemlock 27 NA 19.3 poor Cherry 33 3,696 20.4 excellent Cottonwood 27 4,640 15.8 good Willow 35 4,320 17.6 poor Aspen 25 NA 18.2 good Basswood 25 4,404 13.8 poor White pine 23 NA 15.9 poor Ponderosa Pine 3,600 16.2 fair Eastern Red Cedar 31 2,950 18.2 poor

Heating Properties of Firewood by Tree Species

Heating Properties of Firewood by Tree Species Firewood performance can differ from species to species. The type of tree you use for burning can vary widely in heat content, burning characteristics, and overall quality. I have created a table that presents several important burning characteristics for many species used in North America. The chart ranks each tree species by its density which is a good indicator of overall heating effectiveness. Wood Characteristics Influencing Quality Heating and Ignition Density of Wood - density is the amount of space a volume or mass of firewood occupies. The denser the wood, the less space its given mass takes up and the greater a particular volume of firewood weighs.  For an example,  hickory is about twice as dense as aspen, so a cubic foot of hickory weighs approximately 50 pounds while a cubic foot of aspen weighs only about 25 pounds.   Green Vs. Dry Wood - Firewood should be dried (seasoned) to 10% to 20% moisture content for best burning performance. Much of the energy generated from burning green firewood actually goes toward evaporating the water held in the wood. Green firewood only gives off about 40% of the energy of dry firewood. To get the most heat production out of your firewood, you should season it by first cutting into short log bolts. Split these bolts and stack in a dry,  well-ventilated  area for at least six months before burning. Available Heat by Wood Species  - Available heat is a measure of the heat given off when wood is burnt and measured in million British Thermal Units. Hardwood trees give  off more energy in BTUs than a comparable volume of softwood because it is denser. It should be noted that  the volatile oils in some softwoods can increase the heat output of some species but only for a short time. Ease of Splitting - Wood with a straight grain is easier to split than wood with a tighter more complex grain. Knots, branches, and other defects can also increase the difficulty of splitting firewood. Remember that dry wood is generally easier to split than green wood. Ease of Igniting Firewood - Ignition ability is an important factor wood factor. Low-density wood is easier to light than denser wood. Woods with higher levels of volatile chemicals in their structure, such as conifers, will ignite  and burn more readily than those with less volatile chemicals. These woods should be used to start fires where dry  high-density woods will provide the heat. Definitions of Chart Terms Density - woods dry weight per unit volume. Denser or heavier wood contains more heat per volume. Note that hickory ranks at the top of the list.Green Weight - the weight in pounds of a cord of freshly cut wood before drying.mmBTUs - million British Thermal Units. The woods actual available heat measured in BTUs.Coaling - wood that forms long-lasting coals are good to use in wood stoves because they allow a fire to be carried over a longer period effectively. Wood Heating Values Chart Common Name Density-lbs/cu.ft. Pounds/cd. (green) Million BTUs/cd. Coaling Hickory 50 4,327 27.7 good Osage-orange 50 5,120 32.9 excellent Black locust 44 4,616 27.9 excellent White oak 44 5,573 29.1 excellent Red oak 41 4,888 24.6 excellent White ash 40 3,952 24.2 good Sugar maple 42 4,685 25.5 excellent Elm 35 4,456 20.0 excellent Beech 41 NA 27.5 excellent Yellow birch 42 4,312 20.8 good Black walnut 35 4,584 22.2 good Sycamore 34 5,096 19.5 good Silver maple 32 3,904 19.0 excellent Hemlock 27 NA 19.3 poor Cherry 33 3,696 20.4 excellent Cottonwood 27 4,640 15.8 good Willow 35 4,320 17.6 poor Aspen 25 NA 18.2 good Basswood 25 4,404 13.8 poor White pine 23 NA 15.9 poor Ponderosa Pine 3,600 16.2 fair Eastern Red Cedar 31 2,950 18.2 poor

How Often Should You Take Complete Official ACT Practice Tests

How Often Should You Take Complete Official ACT Practice Tests SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Taking official ACT practice tests under realistic testing conditions is vital to good ACT prep, but after a certain point you can hit a wall and stop getting any benefit out of it. In this article, we’ll discuss the frequency with which you should take ACT practice tests. feature image credit: Flying/used under CC BY 2.0/Cropped and resized from original. Why Use Official Practice Tests? In order to figure out how often to take practice tests, you must first be clear on what you’re getting out of them. The top four reasons for taking official ACT practice tests are to: get accustomed to the experience of sitting down and taking the real thing (including becoming comfortable with taking the full test at 8am) build up your stamina and ability to focus for long periods of time figure out where your weaknesses are judge your progress and studying efficacy Another way of using practice tests is to break them up and only go through the particular section you need to work on at a time. For example, if you run out of time on the Reading section, you may want to take several ACT Reading sections in isolation to work on your time management. This way of using official practice tests is a good way to focus your studying and break up the monotony of doing complete practice test after complete practice test. It's also a better use of your time to do this if you’re only struggling with particular subject areas or question types. Because there are a limited number of official practice tests available to practice with (either as full tests or broken up into section-specific practice), if you think you have a decent chance of going through all of them, it’s important to plan out ahead of time when you’re going to take ACT practice tests. Set Up an Official Practice Test Schedule Now that we’ve discussed why students take official practice tests, we’ll explain how to space them out for students with varying amounts of time before the test. Note that this is only a rough guideline to get you started and that you should be flexible in your own studying to make sure you get the most out of each practice test. We’ve deliberately only included four complete practice tests in the schedules for various scenarios. For most students, practicing specific sections of practice tests is a valuable and necessary addition to taking full-length official practice tests, so you should break up and use the remaining official practice tests at your own discretion. In general, we recommend frontloading your studying with practice tests, because you’re most likely to need the most practice across different sections at the beginning of your studying. If you’re studying effectively, your problem areas should shrink as you go along, making it more advantageous to spend more time on specific sections, rather than taking full-length practice tests (or if you do take full-length practice tests, you need to be sure to review in between so you can improve). At the same time, you need to make sure that you’re taking practice tests close enough to the real ACT to not get rusty. 1-Year Practice Test Schedule If you have a full year to study before the ACT, we recommend planning out your official test taking so that you take... one practice test when you begin studying one practice test 2-3 months into your studying one practice test 6-8 months into your studying one practice test a week or so before the ACT You’ll probably want to take more than four practice tests over the course of a year of ACT prep, but they don’t all have to be official ones. Spend the time in between practice tests reviewing the questions you got wrong and drilling yourself on questions you find difficult. 6-Month Practice Test Schedule The way you space out practice ACTs over a six-month study period is similar to the yearlong study schedule, but the time between each test is a little more condensed. Plan on taking an official practice ACT... at the start of your studying 1-2 months into your studying 4-5 months into your studying a week or so before the real ACT 365-316/used under CC BY 2.0/Cropped from original. Condense the sandwich of a yearlong study plan into a panini of a six-month practice schedule. 3-Month Practice Test Schedule With just three months of studying before the test, the timing of official ACT practice tests will get even tighter. You'll want to take an official ACT practice test... at the beginning of your studying three weeks into your studying 1-2 months into your studying a week or so before the ACT If you compare this to the six-month practice test schedule, you'll see that there are a lot of similarities; the main difference is in the timing of the second practice test, which needs to happen much sooner if you're only studying for the ACT over a period of three months. 1-Month Practice Test Schedule With only one month to study, you’ll be cramming a lot of work into a short amount of time. The same basic principles of lessening practice test frequencies still hold, however. Below, we've mapped out a sample schedule for students who only have one month to study for the ACT: Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Practice Test Practice Test Week 2 Practice Test Week 3 Test Week Practice Test ACT! In the one-month study schedule, we've intentionally put the practice tests on Saturdays and Sundays so that students can take them at the same time of day as they’ll be taking the real ACT. However, if you can’t do this because of scheduling conflicts, that’s fine – just try to keep the same basic shape and spacing as the above schedule. What’s Next? More than a year out from college applications and wanting to start your test prep? Then be sure to read our article about SAT/ACT test dates and study plans for sophomores and juniors. What about if your prep time can be measured in hours, rather than months? Read our special 20-hour prep guide to using ACT practice tests for advice and tips. Ready to start taking practice tests but not sure where to find them? Check out our massive collection of free online ACT practice tests here. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes your prep program to your strengths and weaknesses. We also have expert instructors who can grade every one of your practice ACT essays, giving feedback on how to improve your score. Check out our 5-day free trial:

Defining and Discovering Values Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Defining and Discovering Values - Essay Example Since future is almost unpredictable, other factors may come in that force us to alter some of these plans. Flexibility is certainly the value that allows me to make a move away from a â€Å"rule of thumb† that may not necessary guide me to my goal. Safety is the other value that I treasure most in my ethical leadership. It describes that quality in me that keeps me mindful of the well-being of my followers. As a leader, I would not assign a risky task to my follower that I would personally shy away from being part of it. Lastly, comfort informs me of the need to live a worthwhile life despite the life demands. Life is not a rehearsal and, therefore, getting the most of it while it still lasts is my priority. As such, I always seek to ensure that my followers and I lead comfortable and enjoyable lives. While the above values are critical in my leadership journey, the most challenging bit has been to integrate them in my leadership style. Fortunately, an understanding of the fact that everything I desire to achieve begins with a deliberate move towards it, the only sure way to integrate the values is by living them each day. For instance, every morning as I wake up, I choose to of the above value that I reflect on and try to practice as I interact with others. When faced with ethical dilemmas, for instance, I can support my core values by considering the long terms gains rather than the selfish and short terms desires. Undoubtedly, practicing ethical leadership is an ideal situation that everybody should endeavor to achieve. Its benefits are to the wellbeing of humanity rather than selfish individualistic gains. Therefore, whereas sticking to my ethical values may cost me a lot, the feeling that I am practicing what is right reinforces my ethical professional life. My strengths include organization, discipline, empathy, cohesiveness, and being a model. I

Business law concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business law concepts - Essay Example An employer has to pay wages even if no work is there for the employee to do. The common principle is that wages has to be paid if an employee is accessible for work. This again depends on whether the terms in the contract are expressed or implied. The case on hand with regard to Lessex Police Constabulary agree with Highspots Nightclub is similar to the case of Scottbridge Ltd v Wright wherein a night-watchman was called for to be on the building between 5 pm and 7 am every night. Other than some minor duties the watch man was mainly required to be in the premises to prevent any intruders. When the night watch-man claimed his wages the employer refused to pay saying that he had no work. The Court of Session preserved the EAT judgment that he has to be paid at least the national minimum wage rate for the hours he was at work. It was in the hands of the employer to render him with work and just because he did not have any work to do will not nullify his right to be paid.

Death Penalty For Drug Trafficking

Death Penalty For Drug Trafficking I have chosen to focus on the death penalty for drug trafficking for the following reasons: Some governments will sentence those who are convicted for just the possession of drugs to the death penalty, while other countries are more lenient and do not do so. From this study, I want to know if the enforcement of the death penalty may affect drug trafficking through its deterrence effect. I also want to find out more on the present situation of drug trafficking and thus predict what may happen in the future, with regard to the application and the law on drug offences. Death Penalty for Drug Trafficking: Is it really necessary? Introduction Drug abuse produces long term consequences and problems in societies. Drug trafficking is a serious offence and drug traffickers should be punished. However, should the death penalty be imposed on drug traffickers? Do they deserve the death penalty? Some countries believe implementing the death penalty for drug trafficking has a deterrent effect and would control the drug problem. However, is this really the case? Which countries enforce the death penalty for drug trafficking? There are currently twenty-one countries which state in their laws that those whom are caught trafficking drugs and committing other drug offenses will face the death penalty. From Annex I, it shows that mainly countries in Asia, 18 out of 21, enforce the death penalty for drug trafficking. How does Singapores and Mexicos laws view drug trafficking? Singapore and Mexico were chosen because I want to see the contrast between the laws of a very strict country and one that has a drug war going on and producing a large amount of drugs. Singapore has strict, even draconian laws regarding the misuse of drugs and drug trafficking. This is shown in Singapores laws, under the Misuse of Drugs Act, which state that the trafficking of a certain amount of drugs will result in the person receiving a mandatory death penalty such as 250 grams of amphetamines and 1,200 grams of opium containing 30 grams of morphine. In addition, any person possessing over a certain amount of drugs, such as 15 grams of heroin, 500 grams of cannabis and 30 grams of cocaine  [1]  will be presumed drug trafficking unless proven otherwise and convicted of the death sentence.  [2]   On the other hand, Mexico, a major drug-producing and transit country, has laws which are much more lax than Singapore. Recently, a new law was passed in Mexico that decriminalized the simple possession  [3]  of drugs. Under this law it is stated that if person is found to possess an amount of drugs under the allowable quantity, they will just be told what are the possible drug rehabilitation options in their area.  [4]  The allowable amounts are 5 grams of marijuana and 50 milligrams of heroin, which both contain multiple doses, and 0.5 grams of cocaine. Even if a person is found to be in possession of up to 1,000 times the allowable amounts, he would only be sentenced to 10 months 3 years in prison.  [5]   What are the main arguments for and against the usage of the death penalty? This leads us to the issue of whether using the death penalty is justified for drug trafficking. There are quite a number of factors for people to support the death penalty. First, by killing the criminal, there is one less criminal in society to do harm, thus offering safety and protection. Secondly, it is a deterrent, as people may not want to take the risk to commit a serious crime if the punishment is death. Supporters say that death penalty has been made as humane as possible and can be carried out professionally.  [6]  The death penalty also helps justify the victims death.  [7]   However, there are also many factors to oppose using the death penalty for drug trafficking. Some religious groups say that life is sacred and killing should not be allowed in any circumstances and death penalty is not pro-life. Also, the imposition of the death penalty is a cruel and unusual punishment  [8]  . Opponents also believe that studies of death penalty for deterrence are highly exaggerated and arguments in those studies are flawed. In addition, death penalty is always cruel and can never be humane.  [9]  In the context of Singapore, opponents of death penalty feel that the usage of the death penalty may result in a higher chance of an innocent person being executed  [10]  as Singapore employs a guilty until proven innocent law.  [11]   After considering the arguments from both sides, I am against imposing the death penalty. This is mainly due to the fact that there is no confirmed deterrent effect resulting from imposing the death penalty. Though some studies advocate that enforcement of death penalty can deter people from committing crimes  [12]  , other studies indicated that there is insufficient evidence to prove that death penalty actually has a deterrent effect  [13]  . There is really no proof that a person would not commit a crime due to fear of execution. In addition, death penalty is irreversible, so any miscarriages of justice may result in grave consequences as the dead cannot be brought back to life. Does the death penalty for drug trafficking have a deterrent effect on criminals? There is little information regarding whether the death penalty for drug trafficking has an actual deterrent effect on criminals in Singapore. However, I have created a line graph showing a comparison of the number of drug related executions and the total number of drug abusers arrested in Singapore. Fig. 1 Number of drug-related executions  [14]  in relation to the total number of drug abusers arrested in Singapore in hundreds  [15]   From Fig. 1 above, it is shown that there is no correlation between the number of drug-related executions and the total number of drug abusers arrested in Singapore. There have been some instances where there has been some correlation though, from the year 1994 to 1997 both the numbers of drug-related executions and drug abusers dropped, albeit at different rates. Also, from 2000 to 2001, both numbers rose. However, this does not prove that there is a deterrent effect for the death penalty as the number of drug abusers should increase when the number of drug related executions drop. There are probably other factors affecting the number of drug abusers and drug-related executions such as the effectiveness of the criminal justice system, demographic changes and economic conditions. With a more effective criminal justice system, there could be more executions regardless of whether there is an increase or decrease in the number of drug abusers. Changing demographics could lead to more drug abusers if the change involved an increase in younger population between the ages of 13 to below 30. This however, may not necessarily lead to more executions though one would think that more drug abusers could lead to an increase in drug trafficking. There is just no simple correlation among these factors. When economic conditions are bad, the number of drug abusers may increase as people abuse drugs to relieve their unhappiness.  [16]  However, there may be less executions, since costs required for executing a person is quite high, over USD$1 million as a doctor is needed to be employed to certify the criminals death  [17]  . Is the death penalty really necessary? What would happen if all countries currently practising the death penalty abolish it in the next 20 years? With increasing pressure from Amnesty International and an ever increasing opposition to the death penalty, governments of countries would be under increasing pressure to abolish death penalty due to drug trafficking. In my opinion, the abolishment of death penalty may not lead to a surge of drug trafficking as drug trafficking is affected more by the demand for drugs than the fear of the death penalty. Also, there are other alternatives such as life imprisonment without parole. Also, what would happen to the society if the death penalty was abolished? As mentioned above, the abolition of the death penalty can occur due to pressure from Amnesty International and other organisations. I believe that society in general would not be much affected as there has not been any proof that death penalty acts as a deterrent. Hence, drug trafficking would not be greatly increased. Pro-life members of the society would welcome the abolishment while the supporters of death penalty would put pressure on the government to step up law enforcement to prevent increased drug trade and use. From the previous two scenarios, I conclude that imposing the death penalty for drug trafficking is not necessary because drug trafficking will not increase when the death penalty is abolished as there is no deterrent effect and it may help with tightening law enforcement on drug trafficking and abuse. Word Count: 1475